*In memory of Matías Díaz Padrón

As women painters are being given greater attention, of the old masters Michaelina Wautier (Mons, 1604 – Brussels, 1689) appears to have captivated critics, collectors, and institutions alike. An exceptional painter of 17th-century Flemish art, she defied the norms of her time, excelling in all genres of painting, whilst receiving commissions from the most prominent personalities of the day. Despite this, she remained largely unknown until the 2018 Antwerp retrospective brought her work back into the spotlight^[1].

Michaelina, along with her younger brother Charles (Mons, 1609 – Brussels, 1703), shared a house and studio in Brussels where they, separately and together, created remarkable works. Lost or misattributed, many of their paintings have since been rediscovered, with more of their works seeking the light of day.

In anticipation of a major exhibition on Michaelina Wautier in 2025, which will be held at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna and the Royal Academy in London, we present a previously unknown work by the artist. This discovery adds to the growing list of paintings attributed to Michaelina or her brother; supported by substantial research and study^[2].

The newly identified work is nearly a square canvas (measuring 48.5 x 45 cm) depicting Diogenes. The painting’s provenance traces back to Rome in 2005, where it was initially identified as an “Apostle Reading” and attributed to a follower of the Le Nain brothers. Over time, it has been attributed to various artists and schools^[3], reflecting the challenges in classifying Michaelina’s style.

A similar challenge occurred with the subject depicted in the painting, which was not immediately recognised. Seen half-length in a brown robe, a weathered man reads through scholarly volumes of text; we are given a rare image of Diogenes of Sinope. One of the most illustrious philosophers of Ancient Greece, who lived in the 4th century BCE, and was called ‘the Cynic’ for being an adherent of Cynic philosophy, advocating an ascetic life in agreement with nature and free from social conventions. Like many apostles and other philosophers, Diogenes is depicted with books and reading, but that which truly identifies him, his distinctive attribute, is the lantern behind him. This object alludes to one of the most well-known anecdotes in his biography when he was seen walking through the market of Athens in broad daylight, carrying a lantern in his hand, and someone asked him what he was doing. He then replied: “I am looking for an honest man.”^[4] A cynical response with which Diogenes denounces and emphasises how extremely rare finding an honest person is, even in broad daylight, nor with the help of a lantern; that real human being that he never found, according to his biography.

Thus, the lantern became Diogenes’ attribute, a symbol of the search for truth and philosophical enlightenment. Unlike typical depictions, where Diogenes holds the illuminated lantern in his hand, here it is placed subtly behind him, its candle unlit. This unusual detail invites interpretation: perhaps Diogenes has found enlightenment in the book he reads, or possibly he has finally discovered an honest man, rendering the lantern unnecessary. One might wonder if that could refer to the patron of the painting, the painter herself, or is it meant to honour the viewer; otherwise, could it be explained as an epitome of Cynicism, did Diogenes need to go no further than looking at himself to see an honest man? In another work (Two Boys Blowing Bubbles, Seattle Art Museum), Michaelina included a candle recently extinguished, with its vapour appearing like a greyish thread, which in the context of this painting refers to the idea of ‘Vanitas’, to the fleeting nature of life that is being ‘snuffed out’. The use of an unlit lantern for Diogenes has a different meaning; it is not fortuitous and shows, once again, the singular approach of the artist.

In search of further representations of the philosopher with an unlit lantern, one other example arises: a Diogenes that the Caravaggist Jusepe de Ribera (1591-1652), also known as “Lo Spagnoletto”, painted in 1636 for Prince Karl Eusebius of Liechtenstein (1611-1684), as part of a series of twelve philosophers^[5]. One might wonder if Michaelina could have seen this composition and borrowed the detail of the unlit candle from it, with the background colour in both paintings being very similar. The interest in Ribera is recurring, with several works suggesting that the Wautiers were familiar with his work^[6].

Furthermore, the half-length framing of the figure against a neutral background, wrapped in a rustic cloak, indicates an awareness of another Diogenes that Ribera painted in 1637, a composition known through numerous copies^[7]. Both Ribera and Michaelina depict a younger Diogenes, his greyness growing more in his unkempt beard than in his black, bristly hair. The ascetic figure in Michaelina’s painting shares similarities with Ribera’s composition; yet her Diogenes is uniquely characterised by his intense concentration on reading, with realistic details like the dirt under his nails and the creases heavy on his skin like beautiful scars, alluding to his taxing search for an honest man. Everything adds to the lifelike portrayal. As it appears from his individualised features, Michaelina must have painted her model from life. The rendering of his dry and emaciated face underlines the asceticism of the life Diogenes chose, voluntarily deprived of material possessions.

Michaelina’s choice of Diogenes ‘The Cynic’ aligns with her awareness of contemporary philosophical themes, such as Neo-Stoicism, a philosophical movement originated by Justus Lipsius’ (1547-1606) writings, which significantly influenced Flemish painting^[8] and manifests again in her Apollo and Marsyas and her brother’s Death of Seneca^[9]. Lipsius himself revived the Cynic tradition as a model, stating that Neo-Stoicism originated from it (“Cynicos originem Stoicis deduisse”)^[10], while differentiating between false Cynics and true ones, with the latter living according to virtue^[11].

One might wonder if the artist was also familiar with Laertius’ Diogenes, either through the 1566 Antwerp Latin edition or the first French version (Diogène français, Lyon, 1602)^[12], which includes many amusing anecdotes of the philosopher’s eccentric behaviour. Most probably she was aware of Johan Amos Comenius’ (1592-1670) earliest theatre comedy (Diogenes Cynicus redivivus sive de compendiose philosophando, 1639, reprinted in Amsterdam in 1658 and translated into Dutch in 1660), which conveys an image of Diogenes as a repentant who is willing “just to become an educated person”^[13].

Depictions of Diogenes engaged in reading are uncommon. The episode with the lantern and his encounter with Alexander the Great are the most frequently represented scenes from his life. Raphael’s fresco The School of Athens in the Vatican is one of the few where Diogenes, centre-stage, is shown deep in thought reading a sheet of paper. A painting attributed to Georges de La Tour (1593-1652) depicts him surrounded by an array of papers and books, firmly holding a large volume between his two hands, his lantern lit on the desk, but his gaze elsewhere^[14]. In a painting attributed to Francesco Fracanzano (1612-1656), Diogenes appears carrying a book under his arm, standing in front of a desk where another book is placed^[15]. The distant connection with these two Diogenes possibly explains some of the wrong attributions of Michaelina’s in the past.

Whilst Michaelina also highlights Diogenes’ scholarly endeavours rather than the more commonly depicted episodes of his life, the way she emphasises his intellectual pursuits in her depiction is quite different. Everything is designed to show the man absorbed in reading. It’s not just his downcast eyes but also the posture of his torso and the tilt of his head, subtly inclined forward, literally engrossed in the reading of the open book in front of him; in no way detracted by the painter or his portrait’s potential audience. He has the book intertwined in his right hand, using his fingers as a bookmark. Note the accurate foreshortening and realism in the depiction of the hand and the remarkable tactile quality of the books, with bookmarks interspersed within them. These markers, depicted as big or small pieces of paper, stick out between the pages, suggesting that Diogenes has marked important or interesting passages he wants to return to. This meticulous detail not only adds a level of realism to the artwork but also emphasises the attention and care Diogenes devotes to his reading.

Crucially, Diogenes bears many striking resemblances to Michaelina’s Saint Joachim reading^[16], one of four works collected by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm (1659). When comparing the two in close-up, the correspondences are evident in their shared facial patterns and expressions. Despite the differences in age, beard, and hair, the two faces appear to follow the same design. Sharing identical positions, modelling and chromatism, they are very close in the rendering of the eyes, nose, and mouth, with the same emphasis on the nasolabial fold and forehead wrinkles.

The correspondences between Diogenes and Saint Joseph are quite remarkable as well, and comparisons further extend to the artist’s most significant work, the monumental Triumph of Bacchus or Bacchanal, where the figure of the faun pulling Bacchus’s cart has a comparable facial conception and flesh, with the characteristic attention to the wrinkles on the forehead, and the same level of realism in the execution of the hair. The satyr next to Michaelina (having depicted herself in the painting), shows the same way of highlighting the collarbones and neck muscles.

Diogenes can be further compared to Marsyas in Apollo and Marsyas and several characters in Jesus among the Doctors ^[17], particularly the doctor leaning over the table, engrossed in a book that he holds in his hands, using his fingers to mark the pages just as Diogenes does here. Stylistically Diogenes further relates to the series of The Five Senses, signed and dated 1650 (of which we reproduce here the Touch,. The proximity to these series dated 1650 and to the works owned by archduke Leopold Wilhelm before 1659, provides a chronological frame for Michaelina’s depiction of Diogenes, where her power of observation, technical skills for rendering textures, and the originality of her vision manifest themselves again. The broad brushstrokes and the use of chiaroscuro add to the drama of the figure, revealing the Caravaggistic influence evident throughout her work.

Interestingly, the painting bears inscriptions that further record Michaelina Wautier’s authorship. On the reverse, a note in Italian by a restorer mentions “Michelin,” likely a misinterpretation of Michaelina’s signature. This annotation is located at the top of the kraft paper glued to the edges of the painting during the relining process. Hastily written in black pen, it was undoubtedly added by the restorer who undertook the relining, and it reads: “A[l]lievo di de la Tour // Michelin (Te[s?]to[lin?])” [disciple of de la Tour // Michelin (Te[s?]to[lin?])]. Possibly the restorer saw Michaelina’s signature and noted down a name that sounded familiar to them. Among the four known painters with the name Michelin, they might have referred to Jean Michelin (1616-1670), who was not a disciple of De La Tour but of the Le Nain brothers^[18]. This comparison, however, does not hold up against Jean Michelin’s known works. It seems clear that the restorer misinterpreted the signature but nonetheless recorded something that they saw in front of them. It is possible, as with the case of Saint Joachim Reading (fig. 2) that the inscription was on the back of the painting before relining: “MICHELLINE WOVTEERS F.”, which was copied onto the new canvas before adhering it^[19]. However, the restorer of Diogenes wrote their interpretation on the kraft paper upon completing their work.

Careful examination reveals micro inscriptions within the painting itself, a known feature in Michaelina’s work, adding another layer of authenticity. The first inscription, visible to the naked eye, can be clearly distinguished just below the bookmark placed in the open book, where “diogine” is written in italics. The same spelling is visible in Ribera’s 1636 Diogenes, with the inscription appearing more evident on the wooden table, next to the abovementioned unlit lantern. Similar micro handwriting was found in Michaelina’s Portrait of Pierre Wautier, her brother, where ‘Les fiançailles’ was written as if hidden on his shirt fabric^[20]. Recurring in Diogenes, such micro inscriptions are so tiny that they seem meant to be unseen, as her applying by hiding her inscriptions might well lead us into the heart and mind of the artist.

Furthermore, there is a second inscription that could well be the painter’s signature. Invisible to the eye, it becomes apparent when manipulating the contrast levels of photographs of the painting, running along the edge of the cover of the closed book. It is common for Michaelina Wautier’s signatures to be difficult to see. For example, in the case of the Portrait of a Man (Antonio Pimentel de Prado) (1646) or the Young Man Smoking a Pipe (1656?), only part of her name was deciphered “with the help of other signatures in her paintings” ^[21]. The inscription “Michaelina Wautier fecit 1659” discovered in the Annunciation of Marly-le-Roi had been deliberately obscured^[22].

Whether on the front or back of the canvas, Michaelina’s signature is referred to on the note ‘Michelin’ by the restorer. Also enigmatic is the meaning of the name written immediately after, in brackets, which is difficult to read: “Te[s?]to[lin?]”. Could it refer to the painting’s owner at the time of relining, likely an Italian collector, given the restorer’s language and the painting’s presence in Rome before 2005? It seems improbable to refer to a “Baron Testolin” from Liège, known only for owning a Family Portrait in a Landscape by Paulus Moreelse (1571-1638), as attested to by a seal on the reverse^[23]. The previous whereabouts of Diogenes remains unknown.

Depictions of Diogenes reading are rare, making Michaelina’s focus on his intellectual pursuits even more unique. Her interpretation of Diogenes, engrossed in his book, is characterised by meticulous realism, a unique portrayal that underscores the painter’s singular approach and her keen eye for detail. The rediscovery and attribution of this new painting by Michaelina Wautier offer a significant contribution to the understanding and appreciation of her work. The painting not only showcases her technical prowess, but also highlights her intellectual depth and the philosophical underpinnings of her work, adding to the growing recognition of her precocious talent.

The upcoming exhibitions in Vienna and London provide a timely opportunity to celebrate her legacy and further explore the intricate details of her oeuvre. As more of her works come to light, Michaelina Wautier’s rightful place in art history becomes increasingly evident, underscoring the importance of ongoing research and scholarship in uncovering the contributions of overlooked artists. This new discovery, with its rich details and historical context, is a testament to the relevance and brilliance of Michaelina Wautier’s practice.

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^[1] Katlijne van der Stighelen (dir), Gerlinde Grubber, Martha Howell, Jahel Sanzsalazar, Francesca Del Torre Scheuch, Ben van Beneden and Martine van Elk, Michaelina Wautier 1604-1689: Glorifying a Forgotten Talent (exh.cat., Antwerp, Rubenshuis/MAS, 1 June – 2 September 2018), Ghent, 2018.

^[2] Relevant publications available in https://independent.academia.edu/JahelSanzsalazar

^[3] Rome (Christie’s), 13.12.2005, lot 542 (Seguace dei fratelli Le Nain, Apostolo che legge); Vienna (Dorotheum), 21.10.2014, lot 349 (French Caravaggist, Late 17th/Early 18th Century. A man reading, Diogenes); Munich, (Hampel), 22.09.2017, lot 802 (Italian Caravaggist, 17 Century); Stuttgart, (Nagel), 18.03.2020, lot 543 (Fracanzano, Francesco (Kreis), Der Philosoph Diogenes von Sinope); Stuttgart (Nagel), 10. 12.2020, lot 2057 (Napolitan school, 18th century). 

^[4] On the use of “Anthropos” and the definition of “Man” according to an interior beauty of the soul, or humanity, see Isabelle Chouinard, “Cynisme et falsification du langage : à propos de Diogène cherchant un homme”, in Olivier Laliberté and Vincent Darveau-St-Pierre, Qu’est-ce que le « dire » philosophique ?, Montréal : Les Cahiers d’Ithaque, 2016, pp. 19-33.

^[5] Oil on canvas, 120 x 95 cm. Signed and dated: ‘Joseph a Ribera Yspan. / Valentinus civitatis / Settabis academicus Romanus. F. / 1636’. Inscribed (on the table): ‘diogine’. Private collection. See Alfonso E. Pérez Sánchez and Nicola Spinosa (dir.), Jusepe de Ribera. 1591-1652, exh.cat. Napoli, 17.02. – 17.05. 1992, p. 218, cat. 1.62.

^[6] On Ribera’s influence in Wautier’s work, see Sanzsalazar, in exh.cat. Antwerp 2018, pp. 76-83.

^[7] Oil on canvas, 76 x 61 cm. Dresden, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, inv. 682. See exh.cat. Napoli 1992, p. 220, cat. 1.65.

^[8] Mark Morford, Stoics and Neostoics. Rubens and the Circle of Lipsius, Princeton, 1991.

^[9] Jahel Sanzsalazar, “La mort à l’honneur. Sénèque et Marsyas, deux tableaux des Wautier retrouvés”, Bulletin de l’Institut royal du Patrimoine artistique (IRPA), Bulletin 38, 2023, pp. 36-59.

^[10] Justus Lipsius, Manuductio ad stoicam philosophiam libri tres: Lib. I, dissertatio XIII, in Opera…, ed. H. Cardon, Lyon, 1613, pp. 578-578.

^[11] Jason Lewis Saunders, Justus Lipsius: The Philosophy of Renaissance Stoicism, 1955, p. 76.

^[12] Laertii Diogenis de vita et moribus philosophorum libri X. Plus quam mille in locis restituti et emendati et fide dignis vetustis exem-plaribus Graecis, ut inde Graecum exemplum possit restitui; opera Ioannis Sambuci Tirnaviensis Pannonii. Cum indice locupletissimo. Ex officina Christophori Plantini, 1566 ; Diogene Laerte, Le Diogène français, tiré du grec, ou Diogènes laertien touchant les vies, doctrines et notables propos des plus illustres philosophes compris en dix livres…, Lyon, 1602. A version in Dutch was published in 1655: Kort Begrijp van Diogenes Laërius, zijnde het Leven … der Philosophen…, tot Rotterdam, Joannis Naeranus, 1655.

^[13] Svetlana Mashevskaya, “The Image of Antique Philosopher Diogenes in John Amos Comenius’ Play for XVII Century School Theatre”, Hypothekai 2, 1018, pp. 184-201.

^[14] Oil on canvas, 99.9 x 121.4 cm. Private collection. See Jean-Pierre Cuzin, “Georges de la Tour’s earliest painting?”, The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 160 | No. 1384, July 2018, pp.  554-557.

^[15] Oil on canvas, 121.3 x 96.5 cm. New York (Christie’s), 7.06.2002, lot 40. See Achille della Ragione, Francesco Fracanzano. Opera completa, Napoli, 2011, pp. 29, 51, 66, tav. 40.

^[16] Oil on canvas, 76 x 66 cm. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, inv. GG 375. See Hannelore Magnus, in exh.cat. Antwerp 2018, pp. 204-207, cat. 11.

^[17] The comparison further supports Michaelina’s involvement in Jesus among the doctors, a large canvas that was initially attributed to her brother. Pierre-Yves Kairis (in exh.cat. Antwerp 2018, pp. 262-265) points out Michaelina’s possible intervention in the figure of Jesus); Sanzsalazar, op.cit.  2023, p. 38.

^[18] Paul Romane-Musculus, “Les quatre peintres Jean Michelin”, Bulletin de la Société de l’Histoire du Protestantisme Français, Vol. 125, juillet, août, septembre 1979, pp. 519-520 ; Paul Jamot, “Autour des Le Nain. Un disciple inconnu: Jean Michelin”, La Revue d’art ancien et moderne,‎ 1933, pp. 207-218.

^[19] As has been noticed, the inscription is probably copying what was at the back before the painting’s relining (Van der Stighelen, in exh.cat. Antwerp 2018, p. 36, note 6).

^[20] Jahel Sanzsalazar, “Michaelina Wautier y la boda de su hermano: historia de un retrato identificado”, Tendencias del Mercado del Arte, 2014, pp. 90-94, fig. 6; Idem, “Michaelina Wautier et les fiançailles de son frère: histoire d’un portrait identifié”, online: https://www.academia.edu/11161440/Michaelina_Wautier_et_les_fian%C3%A7ailles_de_son_fr%C3%A8re_histoire_dun_portrait_identifi%C3%A9

^[21] Van der Stighelen, in exh.cat. Antwerp 2018, p. 248, cats. 2 and 20.

^[22] “La manière dont cette inscription a été obscurcie parait volontaire” (Marie-Amynthe Denis, Histoire et analyse d’un tableau : l’Annonciation par Michaelina Wautiers 1659, Louveciennes, 1985, p. 4). Van der Stighelen, in exh.cat. Antwerp 2018, pp. 230-233, cat. 17.

^[23] Köln (Lempertz), 01-03. 03. 1932, lot 666. See online (consulted 21.06.2024): https://doi.org/10.11588/diglit.12615#0044

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